Hardware

You must be able to add new equipment to a computer, integrate the new hardware and software into the existing system, then prepare the new equipment for service without interfering with the operation of existing equipment. One must be able to:
inspect all of the sub-assemblies of a system.
connect new peripherals to the system on your bench as well as at a customer’s site.
perform a complete system checkout after the equipment has been installed.
explain the basic functions of the newly installed equipment and any changes that have been made to the system.

connect the system to a network and verify the network’s operation.
tune the system’s operation for optimal performance.
perform machine moves at the customer site.


CONFIGURATION
You must demonstrate knowledge of the internal sub-assemblies in a typical computer, then demonstrate an understanding of the proper procedures for system setup. 15 days course is a program of the Computer Clinic, Sinamangal, Ktm.
This course is a comprehensive and inexpensive way to test your PC maintenance, upgrading, and troubleshooting knowledge before taking the advance course in Hardware Technician.
Ideally, after going back from this 15 days course, you should be able to:
identify each of the major assemblies in a modern computer and understand the functions of each.
identify the major components in a display.
identify major storage devices and their functions (including SCSI devices).
identify the major assemblies of modern printers and understand their functions.
identify the major components of a basic LAN.
identify the major elements of operating systems, such as Windows, DOS, System 32 and OS/2.
identify a system’s RAM and ROM, and understand the functions of each.
take the necessary steps required to setup and initialize a system.
identify external connectors and ports, i.e., serial ports, keyboard ports, printer ports, etc.
understand how to test each part connected to the system.
configure a system according to specification.
verify that a system is properly setup and configured.
boot the system from diskette.
prepare, format, and backup the floppy and hard disks.
disassemble the system for shipment to the customer.


UPGRADING
As a technician, you must also be able to replace existing equipment with new and improved equipment, and then update the system software and operating system drivers to accommodate the new equipment. All of this must be accomplished without interfering with other devices in the system. You should be able to:
install operating system and driver versions to a system.
replace memory and drives (including SCSI drives).
replace existing display sub-assemblies.
replace new printers and other peripheral devices.
maintain an awareness of existing potential customers and possible system problems.
verify the newly upgraded system’s operation.


DIAGNOSIS
The art of diagnosis is the first critical step toward resolving problems. When a system malfunctions, you must be able to track down and isolate the problem area as quickly and accurately as possible. This includes considerations, such as any changes made to the system hardware or software. You should be able to:
question the customer to exact specific fault details.
use visual and audible indications to identify possible problems.
determine the hardware and software related to the fault area.
use the appropriate tools, test equipment & diagnostic software needed to isolate the fault.
identify faulty hardware or software.
take the appropriate steps needed to correct the system fault.


REPAIRING
Once the diagnosis is accomplished, you will need to take the proper steps to correct the fault that you have identified. In most cases, this will involve the replacement of one or more hardware devices. In other cases, you might have to install (or reinstall) software. On rare instances, you might need to perform some soldering. To master the repair part of the 15 days course, you must be able to:
understand and follow a modular (sub-assembly) repair strategy.
understand the function of each system sub-assembly.
take the corrective steps needed to resolve a fault.
repair basic printer failures.
reassemble, clean, and optimize the system.
prepare the system for shipping.
perform basic soldering (if necessary)


Some benefits to join Short-Period Hardware Training
You can able to have solved your own machine and networking problems.
You are provided 15 days or 15x2 hrs until the completion of the course.
Fully practical base hardware training with 1 & half hours practical in a day.
Short hand tricks and tips on each subject is provided for trainers.
It is sure that it makes you complete basic-level technician.
25% discount card is provided on maintenance after completion of the course.

illuminator

1. INTRODUCTION:

The INTELLIGENT ILLUMINATOR-2 is an automatic battery backed emergency light system on upgraded version of the earlier project named INTELLIGENT ILLUMINATOR. It is being designed to plug & forget, in a sense that once plugged to ac mains; no human intervention is required except for unconditional switching.

Comprising of discrete and integrated components, this system is capable of sensing the surrounding light, battery voltage, and presence of ac mains and take action accordingly.

The need for design and development of the project arises from the frequent black-outs familiar these days. The smartness of the system alleviates the problem and provides a better solution over candle sticks and other commercially available lighting products.


2. BACKGROUND:

As of our knowledge, our Nepal, the second largest country for water resources, has a potential of lighting every house in Asia, but a matter of unfortunate ness, we and most of our citizens face a power shortage and stay in darkness. The development of this project has been undertaken to tackle the problem and eliminate the darkness. It has been designed to power enough smartness to replace contemporary illumination equipments.

3. OBJECTIVES:

· To design and develop a domestically applicable project for illumination.
· To apply the knowledge gained in classroom.
· To design a project to tackle practical problem.


4. PROJECT FEATURES:

4.1 High power:
The system can handle power rating up to 2A at 12V safely.

4.2 Continuous Power:
As far as available the power derived from ac mains wall outlet is provided (in case of larger power requirement the battery acts as a power-buffer) and upon its failure backup battery is brought into use.

4.3 Ambient Light Sensor:
If the locality under sensor coverage is lighted, even manual switching can't switch on the light. As soon as darkness is sensed light is switched ON but for a fixed short interval of time in order to save power. During the time interval, a beep tone and indicator is also made active. The time interval can be changed externally.

4.4 Manual Switch:
After darkness has been sensed, the manual switch is used to switch ON and OFF the light. During this time, the manual switch overrides the sensor and other control circuits.

4.5 Battery Charging Regulator:
To ensure longer battery life, this section doesn't allow discharging the battery below safe level and if such is the case , starts charging on availability of ac power ; an indicator also indicates the voltage state. The charging is controlled by IC and once full the battery is maintained in float state.


5. BLOCK DIAGRAM: DESCRIPTION:
The projects consists of two sections
5.1 charger and battery section
5.2 timing and control section

5.1 Charger and battery section :-
As shown in fig no: 1, the charger and battery section comprises of eight blocks.

The first block is STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER that lowers the higher ac voltage to suitable lower one. The conversion is from 220V to 18V ac.

RECTIFICATION AND FILTERING block takes in the lower ac voltage, rectifies it so that it has an average value and makes it ripple free by filtering process; the output is a smooth (unloaded condition ) dc voltage.

Voltage regulation is required for the ripple free voltage during loaded condition. The VOLTAGE REGULATION block provides a constant output voltage. It is also responsible for limiting the voltage in order to limit the maximum current that can flow during low resistance conditions.

The next block is REVERSE CURRENT PROTECTOR which stops the battery from discharging through circuit ahead when ac line fails.

The CURRENT SENSING block lies on the path that connects the mains source and the overall load and keeps an eye on the charging current and provides a proportional voltage to the regulation block.

The RECHARGABLE BATTERY is the store house of energy in chemical form from which electrical energy can be put in or taken out as per requirement.

The voltage state of the battery is monitored by the COMPARISION block and provides outputs that are fed to indicators.

The INDICATORS are simple on\off devices that make it possible for us to see the voltage state of the battery.

5.2 Timing and control section:-

The timing and control section consists of six blocks as shown in fig: 2. this section is used for automatic switching of light bulbs and thus comprises of sensors and control units.

The AMBIENT LIGHT SENSOR senses the light in the surrounding it is placed in and gives either high or low output based on light intensity.

The TIMING AND CONTROL CIRCUITS receives signals from the sensor as well as manual switch and generates control signal to be used by power switching block as well as indicator and buzzer block.

POWER SWITCHING block switches the lights on and off based on the signals received from timing circuits and manual switch.

The block named BUZZER AND INDICATORS show the light condition in the locality.

On precedence base, the MANUAL SWITCH resides at the top. It can override all the automation and on/off the light unconditionally provided that light is gone.

The LIGHT can be one of various types of light like LED, CFL bulb’s, inverter coupled fluorescent tubes.


6. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

7. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:

The overall circuit is built from discrete components as well as integrated packages. The fore mentioned two sections require the following components:

7.1 Charger section:

Component name: Part no: No:

Transformer 9 -0- 9, 1 AMP 1
Diodes 1N4007 6
Capacitor 1000mF, 25V 1
Voltage regulator LM317 2
Resistors
¼ W 220 W 1
2.2 kW 2
100 W 2
10 kW 3
1.5 kW 2
1 W 1 W 1
Transistors BC548 1
Preset 200 kW 2
Comparator unit LM324 1
Diode 5402 1
Indicators LED’s 3 mm 3
Battery 6 V Sunca batteries 2(Series)

Wires, plugs, clips and board

7.2 Timing and control section:

Component name: Part no: No:

Comparator units LM324 1
Timer ic NE555 2
Capacitors 10 mF electrolytic 1
100 mF electrolytic 1
0.1 mF ceramic disc 3
Diodes 1N4007 4
LDR 1
Resistors
¼ W 10 KW 4
68 kW 1
3.3 kW 1
1 kW 1

Transistors BC548 1
SL100 1
Preset 200 kW 2
Variable resistor (Volume) 470 kW 1
Indicator LED’s 3 mm 2
Switch DPDT (Double pole double terminal) 1
Buzzer Suitable 1
Light 10 mm LED array 1(up to 5)

Wires, plugs, clips and board

8. OPERATION:

8.1 Charger section:
The basic idea lying behind the charger section is charging a lead acid battery by regulated voltage, which makes sure that the battery doesn’t over charge. Current limiting is also employed in order o prevent the battery from drawing excessive amount of current which eventually degrades its life.

The transformer steps down the ac voltage to 18 V ac (9 and 9 terminals). (18 V ac is taken in consideration that the local line supply is very poor voltage source). This small ac voltage is rectified by four diodes, B1, that are configured in full bridge mode. The output is a pulsating voltage that has some dc value. The ripples are filtered by the capacitor C1.A LED indicator connected through 2.2 kW (R1) indicates the availability of line power. The voltage is now ready to be regulated by IC1.The resistor network (R2 and R3) configured around IC1 determines the output regulated voltage which charges the battery. If the battery is discharged too much and tries to draw large current, it is sensed by R4 and generates a proportional voltage at point B. This voltage turns on T1 which diverts some of the current flowing through R3. The result is decrease in the voltage across terminals A and B.

D3 protects battery discharge through the circuit ahead and D4 saves IC1 from damage due to backward current.

The other part is used to monitor the voltage state of the battery. IC1 and the network around it generate almost a constant voltage to be used by comparator (IC2) and reference generating presets. Two presets P1 and P2 each generate about one third of discharged and charged battery voltages which are then fed into IC2.

The battery voltage is sampled using three resistors of 10 kW each. The sample is also about one third of the battery voltage and is fed into remaining inputs of IC2. According to the configuration shown in figure, D2 (green color) turns on when battery voltage reaches around 13.2V (13.05 to 13.3V) and D1 (red color) turns on when battery voltage gets down to 11.5 to 12V.

Now as long as ac line power is available the battery is kept in full charge in standby mode. Power is taken from points A to B. Because the power output is taken from battery terminals, continuous dc power is obtained.

8.2 CONTROL AND TIMING SECTION:
This section is for controlling the on and off of the light without human intervention. For this purpose light dependent resistor (LDR) or photodiode senses the surrounding light and generates proportional voltage across R1.This voltage and another reference voltage described by preset P2 are compared by opamp IC1 which is configured as comparator with positive feedback. The reason for positive feedback is to eliminate any additional noise and to compare with two thresholds so that two light conditions can be seen by the sensor. All the inputs and outputs are buffered so that loading doesn’t cause any serious problems.

The output of the comparator is used to trigger IC2 which is configured as one-shot generator. The sensor output is coupled through transistor to get a negative pulse to feed to the trigger input of IC2. The capacitor C1 is used to prevent any false triggering. The one shot period of IC2 can be changed by varying the resistance VR1 or the value of C3. The output of this IC is used to activate or disable IC3 which generates pulse trains with less than 50% duty cycle (the duty cycle can be changed by changing R7 and C4) and to turn on the lights. The output of IC3, which is built as astable multivibrator, drives the indicator LED and buzzer. These indicate that it is dark in the locality the sensor is placed and the light has been turned automatically. The duration is controlled by VR1. The switch SW1 is double pole double terminal and is used for manual control which is the ultimate control after it is dark. It does two things: it can turn on T2 from output of sensor and disable the timing circuits. D2 and D3 OR the signals from manual switch and the output of IC2 and outputs to the base of T2.

Transistor T2 is a medium power npn transistor (which can be changed to power one if more load power is required), and when receives a small current at its base, turns on the load connected to the power and its collector. Thus it acts like an electronic switch.

9. ENHANCEMENTS AND UPGRADES:

The following enhancements are being considered though they may change depending upon time and need.

9.1 Charge meter for battery.
This project can be further upgraded by using charge meter for the battery by which it can regularly and exactly monitor the level of battery.

9.2 Charging through photo voltaic cell ( Solar Panel)
Most of the rural areas are not electrified yet and lighting by kerosene is costlier and unsafe these days. This very project can be modified to suit the situation by using solar panel for charging purpose of battery.

9.3 Clock that shows the time of day as well as the time of battery back-up used.
This is to make this project multipurpose functioning equipment that can replace wall clock and this makes the user to be notice how much time the battery can work safely.

9.4 Multiple blocks of sensor (e.g. one for each room/stairs).
In the specified home there is possibility of having unequal light in rooms. By using multiples block of sensor, room having low light have can be lightened earlier and room having high light have can be lightened a little later. All of these can be maintained with full automation.

9.5 Fully remote control in conjunction with manual switching.
This is for controlling the equipment from a certain distance for user’s convenience.

9.6 Microprocessor control.
The use of microprocessor or a microcontroller can greatly enhance the perforation as well as can add flexibility in modification as they can software controlled by appropriately coding them.



10. CONCLUSION:

The project development is a direct consequence of the current situation of load shedding imposed by NEA and application of the knowledge gained in the course of study. The emphasis has been placed to utilize the locally available commercial components.

As anticipated few customized units has been sold. And it can be inferred that the project is not only a mere fulfillment of course requirements, but a genuine commercially viable product (Mass production can reduce cost per unit).

11. PROJECT OUTPUT:

It’s the expected output that takes on the nerve of the designer and deviate from the actual output. To achieve the goal, redesign and reconstruction of the tentative circuit were frequent and there were frustrating moments. However, there were good results. The charger could charge the battery to about 13 or slightly higher voltage. It was also not necessary to plug off the charger from ac line, instead the battery was kept in standby float charge mode. The indicator indicated the voltage state but slightly unlinear characteristics existed. The other section had problem with sensing part which later worked fine. The timing circuit gave a superb output. Its output caused to indicate the light. The manual switch could override the control circuits.

12. REFERENCES



Books:
Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky,
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory,
Prentice-Hall of India, 2005

The Art of Electronics,
Cambridge University Press

history of computer

1. First Generation (1939-1954) - vacuum tube gobrelepping
1937 - John V. Atanasoff designed the first digital electronic computer
1939 - Atanasoff and Clifford Berry demonstrate in Nov. the ABC prototype
1941 - Konrad Zuse in Germany developed in secret the Z3
1943 - In Britain, the Colossus was designed in secret at Bletchley Park to decode German messages
1944 - Howard Aiken developed the Harvard Mark I mechanical computer for the Navy
1945 - John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert built ENIAC at U of PA for the U.S. Army
1946 - Mauchly and Eckert start Electronic Control Co., received grant from National Bureau of Standards to build a ENIAC-type computer with magnetic tape input/output, renamed UNIVAC in 1947 but run out of money, formed in Dec. 1947 the new company Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation (EMCC).
1948 - Howard Aiken developed the Harvard Mark III electronic computer with 5000 tubes
1948 - U of Manchester in Britain developed the SSEM Baby electronic computer with CRT memory
1949 - Mauchly and Eckert in March successfully tested the BINAC stored-program computer for Northrop Aircraft, with mercury delay line memory and a primitive magentic tape drive; Remington Rand bought EMCC Feb. 1950 and provided funds to finish UNIVAC
1950- Commander William C. Norris led Engineering Research Associates to develop the Atlas, based on the secret code-breaking computers used by the Navy in WWII; the Atlas was 38 feet long, 20 feet wide, and used 2700 vacuum tubes
1951 - S. A. Lebedev developed the MESM computer in Russia
1951 - Remington Rand successfully tested UNIVAC March 30, 1951, and announced to the public its sale to the Census Bureau June 14, 1951, the first commercial computer to feature a magnetic tape storage system, the eight UNISERVO tape drives that stood separate from the CPU and control console on the other side of a garage-size room. Each tape drive was six feet high and three feet wide, used 1/2-inch metal tape of nickel-plated bronze 1200 feet long, recorded data on eight channels at 100 inches per second with a transfer rate of 7,200 characters per second. The complete UNIVAC system weighed 29,000 pounds, included 5200 vacuum tubes, and an offline typewriter-printer UNIPRINTER with an attached metal tape drive. Later, a punched card-to-tape machine was added to read IBM 80-column and Remington Rand 90-column cards.
1952 - Remington Rand bought the ERA in Dec. 1951 and combined the UNIVAC product line in 1952: the ERA 1101 computer became the UNIVAC 1101. The UNIVAC I was used in November to calculate the presidential election returns and successfully predict the winner, although it was not trusted by the TV networks who refused to use the prediction.
1954 - The SAGE aircraft-warning system was the largest vacuum tube computer system ever built. It began in 1954 at MIT's Lincoln Lab with funding from the Air Force. The first of 23 Direction Centers went online in Nov. 1956, and the last in 1962. Each Center had two 55,000-tube computers built by IBM, MIT, AND Bell Labs. The 275-ton computers known as "Clyde" were based on Jay Forrester's Whirlwind I and had magnetic core memory, magentic drum and magnetic tape storage. The Centers were connected by an early network, and pioneered development of the modem and graphics display.

Atanasoff-Berry Computer 1939, from IEEE

magnetic drum memory of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer 1939, from Smithsonian NMAH

Whirlwind core memory 1951, from IEEE

first computer bug 1945, from IEEE


UNIVAC 1951, from Smithsonian NMAH

UNIVAC I ca. 1955, from Smithsonian

UNIVAC ad 1955/01/17 from Time

UNIVAC ad 1955/02/28 from Time
UNIVAC I of 1951 was the first business computer made in the U.S. "Many people saw a computer for the first time on television when UNIVAC I predicted the outcome of the 1952 presidential elections."




Bendix G-15 of 1956, inexpensive at $60,000, for science and industry but could also be used by a single user; several hundred were built - used magnetic tape drive and key punch terminal





IBM 650 that "became the most popular medium-sized computer in America in the 1950's" - rental cost was $5000 per month - 1500 were installed - able to read punched cards or magnetic tape - used rotating magnetic drum main memory unit that could store 4000 words, from Smithsonian NMAH

2.Second Generation Computers (1954 -1959) - transistor
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Tom Watson, Jr.
1950 - National Bureau of Standards (NBS) introduced its Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) with 10,000 newly developed germanium diodes in its logic circuits, and the first magnetic disk drive designed by Jacob Rabinow
1953 - Tom Watson, Jr., led IBM to introduce the model 604 computer, its first with transistors, that became the basis of the model 608 of 1957, the first solid-state computer for the commercial market. Transistors were expensive at first, cost $8 vs. $.75 for a vacuum tube. But Watson was impressed with the new transistor radios and gave them to his engineers to study. IBM also developed the 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator, the first by IBM to use magnetic drum memory rather punched cards, and began shipment of the 701 scientific "Defense Calculator" that was the first of the Model 700 line that dominated main frame computers for the next decade
1955 - IBM introduced the 702 business computer; Watson on the cover of Time magazine March 28
1956 - Bendix G-15A small business computer sold for only $45,000, designed by Harry Huskey of NBS
1959 - General Electric Corporation delivered its Electronic Recording Machine Accounting (ERMA) computing system to the Bank of America in California; based on a design by SRI, the ERMA system employed Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) as the means to capture data from the checks and introduced automation in banking that continued with ATM machines in 1974

transistor, from Smithsonian NMAH

"First transistor (model), December 1947. Constructed by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley at Bell Laboratories," from Smithsonian NMAH

Regency transistor radio 1954 (TL), Zenith transistor hearing aid 1952, from Smithsonian NMAH

Regency transistor radio 1954, from Smithsonian NMAH


Philco and Emerson transistor radios, from Smithsonian NMAH

transistor radios, from Smithsonian NMAH

transistor radios, from Smithsonian NMAH


Maico hearing aid before and after transistors, from Fortune 1953/03

Morton, Shockley, White who developed transistor, from Fortune 1953/03

RCA transistor ad, from Fortune 1953/03
3. Third Generation Computers (1959 -1971) - IC
1959 - Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments patented the first integrated circuit in Feb. 1959; Kilby had made his first germanium IC in Oct. 1958; Robert Noyce at Fairchild used planar process to make connections of components within a silicon IC in early 1959; the first commercial product using IC was the hearing aid in Dec. 1963; General Instrument made LSI chip (100+ components) for Hammond organs 1968
1964 - IBM produced SABRE, the first airline reservation tracking system for American Airlines; IBM announced the System/360 all-purpose computer, using 8-bit character word length (a "byte") that was pioneered in the 7030 of April 1961 that grew out of the AF contract of Oct. 1958 following Sputnik to develop transistor computers for BMEWS
1968 - DEC introduced the first "mini-computer", the PDP-8, named after the mini-skirt; DEC was founded in 1957 by Kenneth H. Olsen who came for the SAGE project at MIT and began sales of the PDP-1 in 1960
1969 - Development began on ARPAnet, funded by the DOD
1971 - Intel produced large scale integrated (LSI) circuits that were used in the digital delay line, the first digital audio device

IC, from Smithsonian NMAH

Polaroid IC 1961, from Smithsonian NMAH


DEC PDP-1 of 1960, from CHM

DEC PDP8/E minicomputer 1973 from SDCM - cu

Anderson Jacobson ADC 260 acoustic coupler 1963, from SDCM


early transistor calculators - Casio "Mini" used chips from TI (left); TI SR-10 calculator showing circuit in transparent case, used a single chip 1972, from Smithsonian NMAH

early transistor calculators - Casio "Mini" used chips from TI (left); TI SR-10 calculator showing circuit in transparent case, used a single chip 1972, from Smithsonian NMAH

IC, from Smithsonian NMAH

IC, from Smithsonian NMAH
4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present) - microprocessor
1971 - Gilbert Hyatt at Micro Computer Co. patented the microprocessor; Ted Hoff at Intel in February introduced the 4-bit 4004, a VSLI of 2300 components, for the Japanese company Busicom to create a single chip for a calculator; IBM introduced the first 8-inch "memory disk", as it was called then, or the "floppy disk" later; Hoffmann-La Roche patented the passive LCD display for calculators and watches; in November Intel announced the first microcomputer, the MCS-4; Nolan Bushnell designed the first commercial arcade video game "Computer Space"
1972 - Intel made the 8-bit 8008 and 8080 microprocessors; Gary Kildall wrote his Control Program/Microprocessor (CP/M) disk operating system to provide instructions for floppy disk drives to work with the 8080 processor. He offered it to Intel, but was turned down, so he sold it on his own, and soon CP/M was the standard operating system for 8-bit microcomputers; Bushnell created Atari and introduced the successful "Pong" game
1973 - IBM developed the first true sealed hard disk drive, called the "Winchester" after the rifle company, using two 30 Mb platters; Robert Metcalfe at Xerox PARC created Ethernet as the basis for a local area network, and later founded 3COM
1974 - Xerox developed the Alto workstation at PARC, with a monitor, a graphical user interface, a mouse, and an ethernet card for networking
1975 - the Altair personal computer is sold in kit form, and influenced Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak
1976 - Jobs and Wozniak developed the Apple personal computer; Alan Shugart introduced the 5.25-inch floppy disk
1977 - Nintendo in Japan began to make computer games that stored the data on chips inside a game cartridge that sold for around $40 but only cost a few dollars to manufacture. It introduced its most popular game "Donkey Kong" in 1981, Super Mario Bros in 1985
1978 - Visicalc spreadsheet software was written by Daniel Bricklin and Bob Frankston
1979 - Micropro released Wordstar that set the standard for word processing software
1980 - IBM signed a contract with the Microsoft Co. of Bill Gates and Paul Allen and Steve Ballmer to supply an operating system for IBM's new PC model. Microsoft paid $25,000 to Seattle Computer for the rights to QDOS that became Microsoft DOS, and Microsoft began its climb to become the dominant computer company in the world.
1984 - Apple Computer introduced the Macintosh personal computer January 24.
1987 - Bill Atkinson of Apple Computers created a software program called HyperCard that was bundled free with all Macintosh computers. This program for the first time made hypertext popular and useable to a wide number of people. Ted Nelson coined the terms "hypertext" and "hypermedia" in 1965 based on the pre-computer ideas of Vannevar Bush published in his "As We May Think" article in the July 1945 issue of The Atlantic Monthly.

Intel 4004 microprocessor in 1971, from Intel Museum

Apple I of 1976 , from Smithsonian NMAH

Wozniak and Jobs introduced Apple II in 1977, from History of Apple


MITS Altair 8800A 1975 from SDCM - cu


Apple II personal computer 1978 with 5.25-inch Disk drives, from SDCM - cu

IBM 5151 personal computer 1981, from SDCM - cu

Seagate ST-251 5-inch 40 MB hard drive 1978, from SDCM - cu

Memorex Model 101 hard drive, 10 MB, 1983, from SDCM - cu
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond)
1991 - World-Wide Web (WWW) was developed by Tim Berners-Lee and released by CERN.
1993 - The first Web browser called Mosaic was created by student Marc Andreesen and programmer Eric Bina at NCSA in the first 3 months of 1993. The beta version 0.5 of X Mosaic for UNIX was released Jan. 23 1993 and was instant success. The PC and Mac versions of Mosaic followed quickly in 1993. Mosaic was the first software to interpret a new IMG tag, and to display graphics along with text. Berners-Lee objected to the IMG tag, considered it frivolous, but image display became one of the most used features of the Web. The Web grew fast because the infrastructure was already in place: the Internet, desktop PC, home modems connected to online services such as AOL and Compuserve
1994 - Netscape Navigator 1.0 was released Dec. 1994, and was given away free, soon gaining 75% of world browser market.
1996 - Microsoft failed to recognized the importance of the Web, but finally released the much imporoved browser Explorer 3.0 in the summer.

Nokia 9210 Communicator is part of the latest wave of web cell phones

The raveMP player sells for $269 and can store more than an hour of MP3 music

world's first production microchips made of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) transistors and copper wiring by IBM (AP 5/22/00)

body scans to buy clothes


Microsoft Reader

Michael Crichton displays a handheld computer with his latest bestselling novel "Timeline" in Microsoft Reader form on the screen (AP 5/23/00)

digital insertion ad

digital insertion ad


Jeff Bezos of amazon.com

wearable computers

Apple G4

Linux

future technology

Introduction

Modern developments in science and technology are very fast. The things considered as illusion before were in realization more and more. As a member among them, how computer will develop in the future? This article will have a short description to the prediction of computer development in the future simply.


Wirelessly:
Pursues freely is always humanity's dream. In the future computer achieve the wireless between equipment and the network, which means the PCs at home will be more convenient than the laptop-computer in the future. Because the display (certainly will not have been CRT) will be connected wirelessly with host computer, which a little look like present Tablet PC.
The technology which will finish this kind of dream is called UWB (Ultra Wideband) technology. It is a kind of wireless communication technology that very different from others. It is a simple wireless communication technology which can make low consumptions and high bandwidth at wireless LAN WLAN and personal LAN insert technology. So INTEL call it wireless USB.
The transmission speeds of UWB reach 400 to 500mbps in short distance (probably each). At present, super broadband technology can make two equipments apart from mutually 30 foot travel signals to each other at the speed of 100 Mbps. In the experiment that is carried on recently, XtremeSpectrum have utilized its chip to convey different digital TV signals to 6 televisions at the same time. But there is only 30 feet of transmission distances at present, which make UWB technology still unable to compete with 802.11 and any other technology for the market of home network. The research and development of UWB is not being given up. The investigator have researched on strengthen the signal of UWB now, and hope its effective function can cover the family in distance. UWB will be used in the communication among various kinds of devices of computer at the same time, not merely be used it in the network of the computer.


Specialization
Actually not every pieces of jobs needed a high-performance PCs to finish. Even adopt the high-performance computer and may bring the trouble sometimes. Because high performance certainly will bring bad negative effects, such as high energy consumption, high caloric value, etc. Computers in the future will be different on the appearance on performance because of different work require. PC in common use will be replace by the dedicated device (the computer that the software and hardware will be integrated) gradually in order to improve working efficiency.
If you look out for carefully, actually such a change is taking place too at our side at present. For example the terminal station of the lottery ticket, the terminal stations of the cash registering machine in the market and bank, etc. They were all developed gradually by PC in common use for reducing the cost for the efficiency. Perhaps such trend will appear among the family lives of us, too. The special-purpose family adjusts and control computer become the controls centre of electric apparatus of home, Control electric light, refrigerator, microwave oven, air conditioner in home, etc for us, to turn our family into a family of intelligence.


Networked:
Computer is already popularized more and more, various kinds of household appliances begin to possess intelligently too, These phenomenon promote electrical home appliances and the networked processes of computer. The computer can control the function of different electrical home appliances through the network, and download various kinds of new electrical home appliances application program through Internet, In order to increase the functions and improve the performance of the electrical home appliances. We can also let the electric apparatus in home do something through the electrical home appliances in the long-range remote control family of Internet such as improve performance boil the good dish, open air conditioner, etc¡­


Environmental protection:
With the improvement of the performance of the computer, energy consumption will be bigger and bigger, too. The role acted in the family life by the computer is more and more important, the running time of computer will become long too. For preventing the computer becomes the most heavy power consumption electric apparatus at home, many advanced methods were used to let the energy consumption of the computer reduced. For example through the computer of the above-mentioned specialization, let the efficiency of the computer be improved by a wide margin, let the hardware systems of low performance possess specialized function to reduce energy consumption. In additional it adopts new framework such as "DNA", "photon", "quantum" to build up computers, which can reduce the energy consumption of the computer by a wide margin. Power consumptive display system will no longer be consumptive because of the popularizations of LCDs, OLEDs, etc.
Another characteristic of environmental protection computers is the material used to make computer being changed. The proportion of heavy metal and not recoverable material will be reduced further. The renewable material propagated its belief on a large scale, thought of at that time, PC will be like the present newspaper, can be throw away after losing use value, and can also be sold for money (someone retrieves specially).

Humanization:
As the human's tool and control centre in the family of future, the computer will need more exchange with people to be easier to serve for using people. This requires the exchanges with humanization between computer and people. Then people would like to use computer.
In order to achieve the goal of this one, there will be diversification in computer mutual way in the future, not only can control by writing, but also can control by the language, and even control through eyes.


Because intelligent improvement, the computer can choose the flow of operation automatically to work in majority. The course does not need people to participate in, so the interface of the software is simpler and simpler. People need no special study to use it even old man.


Intelligent:
The research of AI has already lasted a lot of years, which is based on fuzzy logic. The computer can analyses the difficulty met in the course of carrying out on one's own initiative, and choose the optimum solution automatically. Most successful using intelligently should be in space technology, as opportunity number and courage number succeeded in landing the Mars. It not only declare that the mankind has advanced one step to other space, but also declare the success of the artificial intelligence at the same time. The distance between Mars and the earth is about 55,760,000 kilometers, even adopt the radio and carry on communication, A signal needs 6.2minutes to back and forth. So there is no idea to control real-timely the robot in the Mars at all. So we need the robot itself to possess certain intelligence to deal with the incident happen suddenly in various kinds of.


With the enhancement of the computing capability of the computer, the civil computer begins to be with a certain degree and intelligent in order to help to deal with the trivial matters in daily life. There is even presenting the robot doing house work specially, which let people able to vacate more time.
The electronic pet begins to be more and more, because the pet of electrification is easy to raise. It also can update and exchange with the host easier, and it can even imitate many kinds of pets , carry on communication with computer. These advantages will let the electronic pet replace the real pet and become the human new partner in future.


Individualization:
The specialization of the computer is becoming more general, so the function and localization of every computer will be clearer. This will impel the traditional computer to split up. The manufacturer of the computer is according to using people's habits and application ranges, Produce different kinds of computers in order to satisfy people's request. The boundary line between traditional desktop computer, laptop computer and PDA will become more blurred. The computer will be classified according to the work that is engaged in.
Because of the improvement of AI technology and robotics, traditional computer and robot will be combined one day in the future, So the difference between the computer may be bigger than present laptop and desktop computer in future. The home computer may appear in our life in the form of the robot or the electronic pet. In this way the computer will be no longer a static machine, still can participate in our life.
Official business computer may develop into two parts of official business robot and personal portable terminal station. The personnel's of office work and assign the order through the portable terminal station, Robot prepare materials and deal with daily affairs according to orders, which need not people go on and intervene.


Conclusion:
In the future, computer continues advancing along many pieces of development routes. Not only emphasize the leap by wide margins of performance, but also improve the humanization of the computer, strengthen man-machine interaction ability. And still pay attention to environmental protection at the same time to reduce pressure for the earth which bears the enormous environment pressure.